Bamboo and rattan science popularization：The development history of traditional Chinese bamboo furniture

Bamboo and rattan science popularization：The development history of traditional Chinese bamboo furniture

Traditional bamboo furniture is an essential component of Chinese culture, with a relatively complete and clear historical lineage in its emergence, development, and prosperity. As a product of China's agrarian civilization, bamboo furniture originated from the bamboo artifacts of primitive society and has evolved over time into various forms, with distinct craftsmanship, aesthetic values, and other characteristics. This article explores the origins and development of bamboo furniture, aiming to trace the historical development of ancient bamboo furniture, investigate its relationship with people's lifestyles and habits, and attempt to analyze the internal driving forces, cultural factors, and artistic value behind its evolution. This helps us understand traditional Chinese bamboo furniture from a macro perspective and contributes to the inheritance and promotion of excellent traditional Chinese culture.

The connotation of Chinese bamboo culture and bamboo furniture
In the process of exploring and utilizing bamboo, people have gradually accumulated a unique Chinese bamboo culture. "Bamboo" has rich and profound cultural connotations in traditional Chinese culture and has been loved by literati since ancient times.
The "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove" from the Wei and Jin periods were representative figures of metaphysics. Their cultural activities took place in bamboo groves, reflecting their pursuit of freedom, spontaneity, and spiritual transcendence. The Tang Dynasty poet Bai Juyi discussed four characteristics of bamboo in his essay "On Cultivating Bamboo": "Bamboo is inherently solid; its solidity fosters virtue. When a gentleman sees this, he thinks of building something that stands firm and unyielding. Bamboo is straight; its straightness helps one stand upright. When a gentleman sees this, he thinks of being impartial and not leaning. Bamboo has an empty heart; its emptiness embodies the Way. When a gentleman sees this, he thinks of being receptive and adaptable. Bamboo has firm joints; its firmness inspires one to set high aspirations. When a gentleman sees this, he thinks of honing his reputation and actions, remaining consistent in adversity." It is evident that the nature of bamboo mirrors the nature of a gentleman, using bamboo as a metaphor for human character and virtue, and expressing aspirations through it, showcasing the idealized personality of bamboo. The Northern Song literary figure Su Dongpo once said: "I would rather go without meat than live without bamboo. Without meat, one becomes thin; without bamboo, one becomes vulgar. A person can be fattened up, but a scholar cannot be cured of vulgarity." Su Shi compared the characteristics of bamboo with the refined sentiments of people, further highlighting the aesthetic ideas of bamboo. Therefore, bamboo has been regarded by the Chinese as a symbol of elegance, resilience, integrity, and moral fortitude since ancient times.
Furniture is an essential item in people's daily lives. Bamboo furniture, made from bamboo materials, is closely related to people's clothing, food, housing, and transportation. Chinese bamboo furniture evolved from "bamboo utensils." Although bamboo utensils do not strictly qualify as furniture, they serve the same purpose of meeting the needs of daily life and production, essentially possessing the functional attributes of furniture. This article includes bamboo utensils within the early category of "bamboo furniture" in China. The cultural connotations of bamboo align with the spiritual pursuits of literati and officials, laying an important cultural foundation for the development of bamboo furniture.

The historical evolution of bamboo furniture
The development of furniture is closely related to human living and lifestyle. The evolution of human living patterns has been from low to high, and lifestyles have progressed from sitting on the ground to sitting with feet hanging down. The development of traditional Chinese bamboo furniture also follows this general rule. From the earliest bamboo utensils to the formation of bamboo furniture, and then to the maturity and prosperity of tall bamboo furniture, it roughly went through five stages. The following is a detailed discussion.

(1) Primitive society: the budding stage of bamboo utensils
The origin of bamboo artifacts in China dates back to the primitive society period. The early inhabitants of the primitive society used easily accessible natural resources for practical production and daily life. Bamboo was a common natural resource; archaeological evidence shows that "primitive humans in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the Pearl River Basin began to utilize and cultivate bamboo species around ten thousand years ago" [3]. Numerous important cultural sites from the Neolithic period have provided concrete evidence of the use of bamboo materials by early inhabitants. Bamboo-wrapped mud structures were found at the Daxi Culture site, bamboo artifacts were unearthed at the Hemudu Culture site, bamboo weaving items were discovered at the Yangshao Culture site, bamboo objects were excavated from the Liangzhu Culture site, and traces of bamboo weaving were found on pottery at the Longshan Culture site, among others. These findings indicate that early inhabitants in different regions and periods all utilized bamboo materials.
Figure 1. Pictures of bamboo weaving objects unearthed from Qianshanyang Site are taken from the First and Second Excavation Reports of Qianshanyang Site in Wuxing

From the perspective of furniture development history, the lifestyle of early humans in primitive society was simple, with basic forms of tools. A large number of bamboo wares, including mats, ropes, baskets, and sieves, were found at the Qianshan Yang site in Zhejiang, totaling over 200 pieces, all crafted using weaving techniques. The fragments of unearthed bamboo wares indicate that the weaving technology was relatively advanced at the time, with diverse and rich patterns, such as single warp and weft, double warp and weft, and multi-warp and multi-weft chevron patterns, as well as more complex diamond, cross, grid, and plum blossom eye weaving techniques [4] (Figure 1). Weaving mats were also discovered at the Hemudu site. Archaeological findings demonstrate that Neolithic inhabitants had learned to make bamboo items to address practical issues in daily life and production.
Figure 2 Stone tools unearthed from Qianshanyang Site Image taken from "Brief Report on the Third Excavation of Qianshanyang Site in Huzhou, Zhejiang Province"

The craftsmanship of bamboo artifacts in primitive society was closely linked to the production tools of the time. At the Qianshan Yang site, "from the bamboo weaving items that have been unearthed, most were made from polished bamboo strips, with occasional pieces woven directly from unprocessed bamboo" [5], indicating that early humans had begun using tools to process bamboo materials. A large number of stone tools were also found at this site, including stone knives, axes, clubs, battle-axes, and arrowheads (Fig. 2). At the Hemudu site, in addition to a large number of stone tools, serrated bone tools were discovered, which are the earliest prototypes of saws (Fig. 3). Although these tools were primitive, crude, and simple, they already possessed basic functions such as chopping, cutting, trimming, scraping, and sawing. It is not hard to imagine that ancient people might have used these tools to process round bamboo into strips for weaving.
The bamboo weaving of the primitive society was simple and unadorned, with thick bamboo strips and rudimentary weaving techniques. Limited by the production tools and productivity of the time, it was in its nascent stage. Nevertheless, these bamboo weavings were a great creation by our ancestors to address daily production and living issues, highlighting their practicality. Practicality is the key to the rational existence of objects, which became the driving force behind the development of Chinese bamboo furniture.
Figure 3 Rectangular objects unearthed from Hemudu Site Image taken from Report on the First Excavation of Hemudu Site

(2) Shang and Zhou Dynasties: the initial stage of development of bamboo ware
During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, there were significant changes in production tools. Bronze replaced primitive stone and bone tools. The change of production tools significantly improved productivity and promoted the further development of bamboo tools.
The bamboo artifacts from the Shang and Zhou periods can be explored through early Chinese characters. "Pictographic" is one of the most significant features of Chinese writing, and insights into the development of bamboo tools during this period can be gained from characters that include the bamboo radical. Oracle bones unearthed at the Yinxu site in Henan Province reveal bamboo tools such as beng, xia, dan, ji, fang, and gui. These bamboo tools served various functions: beng was a bamboo arrow, xia was an arrow quiver, dan was a bamboo mat, ji was a soil-collecting tool, fang was a container for holding objects, and gui was a cooking utensil. At this time, the functions of bamboo tools became more specialized. Many bamboo artifacts have been found at sites from this period. Bamboo boxes and baskets were discovered in the Longhu Mountain cliff tombs in Jiangxi; in the Baiyan Cave on Wuyi Mountain in Chong'an, Fujian, a bamboo bed was found, made by placing four bamboo strips parallel to form a "book" shape, with a damaged bamboo mat on top. The mat has a human-character woven pattern, and there are both coarse and fine varieties. Coarse mats were used under the coffin bottom, while fine mats covered the body.
Figure 4 Bamboo fan excavated from Tomb No.1 of Masan, Gangneung and collected by Jingzhou Museum

In addition, exquisite lacquered bamboo furniture was also discovered during this period, such as bamboo chests, fans, mats, baskets, and curtains. Bamboo chests were used to store clothes, books, and other items made of bamboo. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, bamboo chests were widely used, with over a hundred found in Chu tombs. They came in three shapes: square, rectangular, and round. The craftsmanship was meticulous, made from multiple layers of bamboo strips woven together. Some featured patterned weaving, others had surfaces coated with lacquer, and still others were woven with plain bamboo strips. Bamboo fans served to "beat away the heat and shield the eyes." A bamboo fan (Fig. 4) was unearthed from Tomb No.1 at Mashi in Gangneung, resembling a kitchen knife, woven from red and black lacquered bamboo strips. The fan face features black and red circular patterns, with two holes left between the fan face and handle, demonstrating a sophisticated design and exquisite craftsmanship. Another exquisite lacquered bamboo mat (Fig. 5) was also excavated from the same tomb, featuring fine weaving techniques. The bamboo strips were coated with red and black lacquer, being very thin and only half a millimeter thick. The intricate patterns on the mat reflect the advanced bamboo weaving techniques of the Warring States period.

Figure 5 Bamboo mat excavated from Jiangling Wangshan Tomb is collected by Hubei Provincial Museum

During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, bamboo utensils saw significant development compared to those in the primitive society period, with a wide variety of types. Especially influenced by bronze and iron tools, the craftsmanship of bamboo utensils greatly improved, becoming more intricate and exquisite than in the primitive society period. At this time, bamboo weaving began to emphasize decorative and aesthetic qualities while maintaining practicality. The combination of lacquer techniques and bamboo materials resulted in colorful lacquered bamboo items, reflecting the ancients' aesthetic pursuits on bamboo utensils.

(3) Qin and Han dynasties to Sui Dynasty: the emergence and development stage of bamboo furniture
Since the Qin and Han dynasties, China entered a feudal society. On one hand, the relatively stable social environment of the Qin and Han periods allowed self-sufficient natural economies to develop, with the growth of agriculture, handicrafts, and commerce promoting the development of bamboo tools. On the other hand, from the Han dynasty through the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties, it was a period of cultural integration, marking a significant historical turning point where Chinese furniture evolved from low to high forms, and truly meaningful bamboo furniture began to appear.
In the "Records of the Grand Historian: The Biographies of Wealthy Men," Sima Qian of the Western Han Dynasty mentioned, "A thousand acres of bamboo on the Wei River... these people are all equal to the marquises of a thousand households," reflecting that bamboo was an important economic crop during the Han Dynasty. At this time, bamboo furniture was quite common and widely used by ordinary people. The "Discourses on Salt and Iron: Insufficient Supplies" records: "The utensils of commoners are merely bamboo, willow, pottery, and gourds." Bamboo furniture popular at the time included bamboo curtains, bamboo baskets, bamboo sedan chairs, bamboo trunks, bamboo bags, bamboo baskets, bamboo nets, bamboo baskets, bamboo mats, bamboo fans, bamboo bags, bamboo cages, bamboo mats, bamboo mats, and bamboo mats. In his book "Shuowen Jiezi," the Eastern Han scholar Xu Shen included a large number of bamboo-related characters, such as "lian, hall curtain," referring to bamboo curtains hung in halls; "shang, broken bamboo," referring to containers made from bamboo tubes; "shou, bamboo container," a bamboo cage used for holding chopsticks and spoons; "sha, fan," referring to fans; "nu, birdcage"... There are many similar records. It is evident that during the Qin and Han periods, bamboo utensils saw an explosive increase in variety, with functions becoming highly specialized and covering various aspects.
Figure 6. Seat in Gandhara sculpture, private collection, Japan

The period from the Eastern Han to the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties was a time of great cultural integration. Influenced by Buddhist culture and the nomadic Hu people, changes in people's living habits and daily routines laid the cultural foundation for the introduction of tall furniture. During this period, a type of tall seating called "shu bo zuo" emerged, which was round with a waistband and resembled a cushion. It was often made of brocade or silk, brought to Central China from Central Asia and West Asia along with Buddhism, and is commonly found in Buddhist sculptures and murals. The seating in Gandhara sculptures (Fig. 6) is a woven, perforated circular seat. This type of seating, known as "quan ti" when introduced to China, comes from the chapter "Waiwu" in the *Zhuangzi*: "The qu is used for catching fish; once you catch the fish, you forget the qu. The ti is used for hunting rabbits; once you catch the rabbit, you forget the ti." Originally referring to tools used for fishing and hunting, it was adopted by ancient people due to its resemblance to foreign Buddhist seating. Qu ti were typically made of bamboo or rattan and represent one of the earliest forms of tall seating in China (Fig. 7).

Figure 7. The seat in the mural on the south wall of Cave 285 of the Western Wei Dynasty in Mogao Grottoes

During the Qin and Han dynasties, the economic value of bamboo became increasingly prominent, and the development of bamboo industry promoted the vigorous development of bamboo products. During the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, with the integration of foreign cultures and the introduction of high furniture, the real bamboo furniture appeared.

(4) Tang and Song Dynasties: the mature development stage of tall bamboo furniture
The Tang Dynasty was a period of flourishing social, economic, and cultural development. People's living habits evolved from sitting on the ground to sitting with their feet hanging down, marking a significant transition from low furniture to high furniture. Bamboo furniture began to enter the lives of literati, who favored it greatly, fostering a refined taste among them. Many literary works contain records about bamboo furniture, and paintings also feature images of bamboo furniture.
Representative bamboo furniture of this period includes bamboo knee supports and bamboo chairs. The bamboo knee support was a cooling device during the Tang Dynasty, known as "Bamboo Lady" in the Song Dynasty. In his poem "Sending Bamboo Knee Supports to Xi Mei," Tang poet Lu Guimeng wrote, "Cut from the slender bamboo, cold like a dragon, its green light spans the scorching summer." [6] The bamboo knee support described in the poem is cylindrical with a mesh-like perforation throughout, resembling a cage-like bamboo cushion. It is made from a type of bamboo called "yundang," which has thin bark, long nodes, and tall stalks. Ancients would hold it while sleeping or lean against their arms or knees, utilizing the principle of "wind passing through the alley" to achieve a cooling effect.

Figure 8. The bamboo chair of Venerable Pindapasi, the third of the Six Venerables in Lu Lengjia's Album, is in the collection of the Palace Museum

In the painting "Six Venerables" by Tang Dynasty artist Lu Lengjia (Fig. 8), there is a bamboo Zen chair, which is one of the earliest known images of a bamboo chair discovered to date. The four legs and backrest of this bamboo chair are made of thick material, with the backrest's exposed end curving upward and inward, forming a goose-neck shape that connects to the armrests. The front legs curve inward at the top, creating a goose-neck-like appearance. The chair has double beams on the front and single beams on the sides and back. The outer frame of the chair uses the leg wrapping technique to connect with the legs. From its design, this bamboo Zen chair appears broad and substantial, exuding the atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. The artist highlights the monk's image through the simplicity and rusticity of the bamboo furniture, showcasing the monk's Zen philosophy and transcendent demeanor. In this sense, the bamboo chair already embodies the aesthetic tastes of literati. During the Song Dynasty, the status of literati reached unprecedented heights, and factors such as the awakening of intellectual consciousness, the rise of Neo-Confucianism, cultural prosperity, and commercial flourishing all contributed to the development of bamboo furniture during this period. By this time, the styles of bamboo furniture had largely matured, and visual records of bamboo furniture became increasingly abundant, further highlighting the aesthetic appeal of bamboo furniture among literati.

Here are some bamboo furniture in Song paintings:

Figure 9 Bamboo tea table in Song Dynasty imitation of Yan Liben's "Xiao Yi Earns the Orchid Pavilion" collection of Liaoning Provincial Museum

The Song dynasty imitated the bamboo tea table from Yan Liben's "Xiao Yi's Capture of Orchid Pavilion" (Fig. 9). The table's edges are framed by three slender bamboo strips, which are securely tied together with fine bamboo twine. The tabletop is composed of bamboo slats arranged in a grid pattern. Below the frame is a horizontal beam, between which are placed short pillars. The ends of these pillars intersect with the legs. The entire tea table exudes a simple and elegant simplicity.

Figure 10. The bamboo chair in Ma Gongxian's "Q&A of Li Ao on Yaoshan" is housed in Nanchan Temple, Kyoto, Japan

In the "Illustrated Dialogue between Li Ao of Yaoshan and Ma Gongxian" by Song dynasty artist Ma Gongxian (Fig. 10), the bamboo armchair is rugged and spacious, highlighting the transcendent demeanor of Chan Master Weiyen. In the "Eighteen Scholars of the Song Dynasty" scroll (Fig. 11), a square bamboo rose chair appears, with meticulous material selection and exquisite craftsmanship, exuding an elegant atmosphere. The chair uses binding techniques at all structural joints, making it both sturdy and decorative, demonstrating the unique ingenuity in its design and showcasing the high standards of Song dynasty bamboo furniture. This shows that the system of Song dynasty bamboo furniture had matured, closely tied to the lives of literati.

Figure 11 Bamboo chair in the Eighteen Scholars of Song Dynasty, Taipei Palace Museum

During the Tang and Song dynasties, the style of bamboo furniture was largely established and had developed to a mature stage, laying an important foundation for the subsequent peak period of bamboo furniture. Bamboo furniture during this time became an indispensable part of literati life. Influenced by their thoughts and aesthetics, it exhibited artistic characteristics that reflected the refined tastes of literati, aligning with the identity symbols of cultural figures and highlighting their spiritual pursuit of elegance and refinement.


(5) Ming and Qing Dynasties: the prosperous development stage of bamboo furniture
The Ming and Qing dynasties were a period of prosperity for China's commercial economy and handicraft industry, as well as the peak and golden age of traditional Chinese furniture. During this time, bamboo furniture flourished, with the integration and development of bamboo and wooden products being a significant feature. Li Yu wrote in *Leisurely Sentiments*: "The wooden wares of Yangzhou and the bamboo wares of Suzhou can be said to be unparalleled throughout history and rank first under heaven." [7] We can understand the development of bamboo furniture through the patterns depicted in paintings from the Ming and Qing periods and some surviving physical examples of bamboo furniture.

Figure 1 and 2: Ming Dynasty Xiehuan "Elegant Gathering in the Apricot Garden" is in the collection of Zhenjiang Museum

The bamboo chair (Fig. 12) in the Ming Dynasty's Metabolic Ring "Elegant Gathering in Apricot Garden" is simple and thick, with unique and exquisite manufacturing techniques. The front leg, armrest and head are made of one bamboo joint, which reflects the wonderful use of bamboo materials by ancient craftsmen.

Figure 13 Bamboo chair in Qiu Ying's Ancient Bamboo Garden painting of the Ming Dynasty, collection of the Palace Museum

In Qiu Ying's "Appreciating Antiquities in a Bamboo Courtyard" (Fig. 13) from the Ming dynasty, two bamboo rose chairs and one round bamboo stool appear. The rose chairs are made of delicate materials, with graceful and elegant designs. The round bamboo stool has a circular bamboo structure inside and is externally supported by thick bamboo strips woven into an oval shape, giving it a simple and refined appearance.

Figure 14 Ming Dynasty Gu embroidery "Sixteen Yingshen Album", Shanghai Museum

In the bamboo chair (Figure 14) in the Sixteen Realities Album of Guo embroidery from the Ming Dynasty, the bamboo chair is simple and open in shape, and the arhat is sitting on the chair reading a scripture. The casual shape of the bamboo chair coincides with the state of peace of the arhat.

Figure 15 Bamboo bed in Wang Zhong's "Fun Lies in People" album of the Ming Dynasty, Shanghai Museum

The bamboo bed in Wang Zhong's "Leisure Lies in People" (Fig. 15) is slender and tall, with a scholar seated on it to enjoy the coolness. Beside it are calligraphy, paintings, and books. This bamboo bed embodies the refined pleasure of ancient people seeking shade. It is evident that bamboo furniture in the Ming Dynasty was closely tied to the lives of literati, becoming an indispensable part of their elegant gatherings.

Figure 16 Bamboo sedan chair in the illustration of "Dream of the Red Chamber" by Sun Wen in the Qing Dynasty. Dalian Lushun Museum

During the Qing Dynasty, bamboo furniture was influenced by the aesthetic tastes of the aristocracy, emphasizing "beautiful materials and exquisite craftsmanship." The designs were intricate and ornate, exuding an air of nobility. In the novel *Dream of the Red Chamber*, there are numerous references to bamboo furniture, including bamboo tables, chairs, stools, and sedan chairs. The illustrations in *Dream of the Red Chamber* by the Qing painter Sun Wen depict two bamboo sedan chairs. The one where Bao Yu sits is small in size (Fig. 16), with a backrest made of multiple curved strips, giving it a feel similar to a wooden comb-back chair; the one where Grandma Jia sits is much larger (Fig. 17), with more elaborate design, featuring a canopy and curtains on top of the bamboo chair, clearly indicating a higher status, reflecting Grandma Jia's identity and position. This shows that at this time, bamboo furniture was highly favored by the aristocracy.

Figure 17 Bamboo sedan chair in the illustration of Dream of the Red Chamber by Sun Wen in the Qing Dynasty, Dalian Lushun Museum

The concept is also reflected in the bamboo furniture depicted in Qing dynasty court paintings. In the "Yinzhen's Consort Enjoying Leisure" scroll (Fig. 18), the bamboo furniture includes a bamboo chair, a bamboo table, and a bamboo stand. These three pieces of bamboo furniture are uniquely designed and meticulously crafted. The bamboo chair has a fan-shaped design, while the bamboo stand is circular. Their craftsmanship is delicate and exquisite: the bamboo chair uses thick bamboo for the frame and thin bamboo for decorative elements; the bamboo stand is made by bending round bamboo into an oval shape, then binding the oval, stand face, and base ring together with bamboo strips; the legs of the bamboo table consist of multiple round bamboos placed side by side, with the teeth and corners formed by joining fine round bamboos. These three pieces of bamboo furniture exude a noble and elegant aura, highlighting the rich imperial atmosphere and underscoring the status and identity of Yinzhen's consort.

Figure 18 Bamboo furniture in the painting "Yinzhen's Consort Enjoying herself" by Qing Dynasty artist, collection of Palace Museum

There are many valuable bamboo furniture relics in the old collection of the Qing Palace, including spotted bamboo kang table, spotted bamboo lacquered chair, rosewood screen with embroidery of bird and flower pattern with bamboo frame, spotted bamboo black lacquered long table, etc., which are important physical materials for the study of ancient bamboo furniture.

The overall structure of the spotted bamboo lacquered chair (Fig. 19) is composed of four finely carved pieces of spotted bamboo, consistent with the craftsmanship of the spotted bamboo table legs shown in the previous image. The corner teeth are joined together from fine round bamboo pieces. The seat and backrest are coated with black lacquer and adorned with gold patterns. The spotted bamboo table with a black lacquered surface (Fig. 20) and the spotted bamboo kang table with black lacquer and gold patterns (Fig. 21) have similar techniques and styles to the aforementioned bamboo chairs, which will not be elaborated on here. These pieces of spot bamboo furniture, made from precious materials, with simple designs and exquisite craftsmanship, are both elegant and valuable, highlighting the noble status of their users.

Figure 20 A long table with black lacquer surface in bamboo and bamboo

Bamboo furniture reached its peak during the Ming and Qing dynasties, with craftsmanship becoming highly sophisticated. The beauty of materials and the refinement of workmanship were hallmarks of bamboo furniture from this period. From the Ming to the Qing dynasties, bamboo furniture gradually moved from the lives of literati to those of the nobility, especially favored in court settings. On top of its elegant charm, bamboo furniture also gained a touch of aristocratic elegance.

Figure 21 Black lacquer and gold painted bamboo kang table, collection of the Palace Museum

conclusion

The development of bamboo furniture is closely related to people's living needs, lifestyles, social productivity, and cultural environment in various historical periods. It has both objective material conditions and subjective humanistic factors, with its cultural connotations continuously improving. By tracing the history of bamboo furniture, we can see that Chinese bamboo furniture originated from bamboo utensils in primitive society, which were in their nascent stage, primarily consisting of simple and rustic practical household items; during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, bamboo utensils began to develop under the influence of metal tools, with production techniques becoming more refined, and the emergence of painted bamboo utensils added aesthetic value to their practicality; in the Qin and Han periods, the variety of bamboo utensils greatly increased, leading to their maturity, laying the foundation for the true bamboo furniture that appeared during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties; later, as bamboo utensils integrated foreign cultures, there was a trend towards the development of high-style bamboo furniture; during the Tang and Song dynasties, the styles of bamboo furniture were established, entering a mature phase, influenced by the aesthetics of literati and officials, the cultural significance of bamboo furniture significantly increased; in the Ming and Qing dynasties, the development of bamboo furniture reached its peak, influenced by advancements in handicrafts, bamboo furniture presented a refined and beautiful appearance, further reinforcing the literati spirit of bamboo furniture, while also being influenced by the aesthetic tastes of the royal aristocracy, leading to a trend towards elegance and refinement.

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